Section 1: Introduction
1.1 Overview and History
Figure skating is one of the oldest Winter Olympic sports, first appearing at the 1908 London Summer Olympics before the Winter Games existed. It became a permanent fixture of the Winter Olympic program from the inaugural 1924 Chamonix Games. The sport combines athletic prowess with artistic expression, requiring skaters to execute technically demanding elements — jumps, spins, footwork, and lifts — within choreographed programs set to music.
1.2 Governing Body
The International Skating Union (ISU), founded in Scheveningen, Netherlands in 1892, is the oldest governing body of international winter sport. The ISU administers figure skating and speed skating worldwide. Its regulatory authority is codified in the ISU Constitution and General Regulations, the ISU Special Regulations & Technical Rules — Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance, and annually published ISU Communications that update technical requirements. The ISU is recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as the sole authority over figure skating at the Olympic Games.
1.3 Olympic Disciplines
Five disciplines are contested at the Olympic Winter Games:
- Men's Singles — Individual male skaters perform a Short Program and Free Skating.
- Women's Singles — Individual female skaters perform a Short Program and Free Skating.
- Pairs — One man and one woman perform together, incorporating throw jumps, lifts, death spirals, and side-by-side elements.
- Ice Dance — One man and one woman perform the Rhythm Dance and Free Dance, emphasizing dance holds, footwork, and musical interpretation. Jumps are restricted to single Axels or less.
- Team Event — Introduced at the 2014 Sochi Olympics. National teams of up to five entries (one per discipline plus pairs or ice dance) accumulate placement points across Short Programs/Rhythm Dance and Free Skating/Free Dance segments.
1.4 Competition Structure
Major ISU competitions include the Olympic Winter Games, ISU World Figure Skating Championships, ISU Four Continents Championships, ISU European Championships, and the ISU Grand Prix Series (six events plus a Final). Each member federation also organizes national championships that serve as Olympic and World Championship qualification events.
Section 2: Equipment
2.1 Figure Skating Boots and Blades
Figure skating boots are constructed of stiffened leather or synthetic materials, rising above the ankle to provide lateral support. The boot is mounted with a steel blade attached via a sole plate and heel plate. Key blade specifications:
- Blade length: Approximately 28–32 cm (11–12.6 in), proportional to boot size, extending slightly beyond the heel.
- Blade thickness: 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in), with two distinct edges (inside and outside) created by a concave hollow grind on the bottom surface.
- Toe pick: A serrated set of teeth at the front of the blade, essential for jump takeoffs (toe-assisted jumps) and certain footwork. Singles and pairs blades feature a pronounced toe pick; ice dance blades have a shorter, less aggressive toe pick to reduce tripping risk during close partnering.
- Rocker: The blade has a curved profile (rocker) allowing smooth transitions between edges. Ice dance blades typically have a flatter rocker and a shorter tail for enhanced maneuverability in close holds.
2.2 Costumes and Attire
ISU Rule 501 governs competition attire. Key requirements:
- Costumes must be modest, dignified, and appropriate for athletic competition. They must not create the illusion of excessive nudity.
- Men must wear full-length trousers (no tights alone). Women may wear skirts, trousers, or unitards; skirts must cover the hips and posterior.
- Decoration must be non-detachable. Excessive decoration that could fall onto the ice and create a hazard is prohibited. Props and accessories that are not part of the costume are forbidden.
- Costumes violating these rules incur a -1.0 deduction applied by the Referee.
2.3 Music Requirements
- Music with lyrics has been permitted in all disciplines since the 2014–2015 season.
- Music must be submitted electronically in advance to the organizing committee. A backup copy (CD or USB) is required at competition.
- Music must not contain offensive language or content inappropriate for a sporting audience. Violations are subject to deduction at the Referee's discretion.
Section 3: Playing Area
3.1 Ice Rink Dimensions
Competitions are held on regulation ice rinks conforming to ISU specifications:
- Ice surface: 56–60 m × 26–30 m (184–197 ft × 85–98 ft).
- Preferred Olympic/ISU Championship size: 60 m × 30 m (197 ft × 98 ft).
- Corner radius: 7–8.5 m (23–28 ft), producing rounded corners.
- Board height: Approximately 1.17–1.22 m (3.8–4.0 ft) above the ice surface. Boards must be padded at the top edge.
3.2 Ice Conditions
- Ice temperature: Maintained at -3°C to -5°C (23°F to 27°F). Slightly harder ice is preferred for figure skating to provide better grip for edge work and jump landings.
- Ice thickness: Approximately 3–5 cm (1.2–2 in) of quality ice over the refrigerated slab.
- Resurfacing: The ice is resurfaced with a Zamboni (ice resurfacer) between warm-up groups and between the Short Program/Rhythm Dance and Free Skating/Free Dance segments. The ISU may order additional resurfacings if ice quality deteriorates during competition.
3.3 Venue Requirements
- The rink must have adequate lighting (minimum 1400 lux for televised events) distributed evenly across the ice surface.
- A dedicated Kiss and Cry area adjacent to the ice where skaters and coaches await scores.
- Separate warm-up area or practice rink recommended for ISU Championships and Olympic events.
- The Technical Panel and Judges sit on opposite sides of the rink for independent assessment.
Section 4: Players & Officials
4.1 Competitors
- Singles: One individual skater per entry.
- Pairs: One man and one woman skating together. Both partners must be from the same ISU member federation (nation).
- Ice Dance: One man and one woman. Same nationality requirement as pairs.
- Team Event: Each nation may enter one team comprising up to five entries (Men's Singles, Women's Singles, Pairs, Ice Dance, with flexibility on the fifth entry). Points are accumulated based on placement in each segment.
4.2 Age Eligibility
Skaters must reach the age of 17 before July 1 of the preceding year to compete at the Olympic Games and ISU Senior Championships (rule updated for the 2024–2025 season, raised from 15). Junior competitors must be at least 13 and under 19. Age is verified by passport.
4.3 Technical Panel
The Technical Panel identifies and confirms every technical element performed. It consists of:
- Technical Specialist (TS): Calls each element in real time (jump type, number of revolutions, spin level, etc.).
- Assistant Technical Specialist (ATS): Independently verifies element calls and may challenge the TS call through a review process.
- Technical Controller (TC): Oversees the panel, resolves disagreements between TS and ATS, and has final authority on element identification. May initiate video review.
- Data Operator & Replay Operator: Enter element calls and provide instant video replay to the Technical Panel for review.
4.4 Judging Panel
A panel of nine judges scores each performance. Judges are selected from different ISU member federations to ensure international representation. For the final score calculation, the highest and lowest marks for each element and component are discarded, and the remaining seven scores are averaged (trimmed mean). Judges are anonymized — individual scores are published but not attributed to specific judges at ISU Championships. Judge assignments are determined by random draw.
4.5 Other Officials
- Referee: Oversees the entire competition, applies deductions for falls, time violations, and costume infractions. Has authority to stop a program in case of emergency.
- Event Controller: Manages the overall organization and logistics of the competition.
- Ice Marshal: Monitors warm-up sessions for safety.
Section 5: Rules of Play
5.1 Singles Short Program
The Short Program contains 7 required elements performed within a maximum time of 2 minutes 40 seconds. Skaters must execute each prescribed element; omitting a required element results in zero value for that element. The required elements (subject to annual ISU Communication updates) typically include:
- A double or triple Axel.
- A triple or quadruple jump preceded by connecting steps/movements.
- A jump combination (two jumps or a jump + Euler + jump).
- A flying spin or spin with a flying entry.
- A spin combination with only one change of foot.
- A spin in one position with no change of foot (camel, sit, or layback for women).
- A step sequence utilizing the full ice surface.
5.2 Singles Free Skating
The Free Skating segment allows free choice of elements within ISU maximums, performed in 4 minutes (senior men and women; reduced from 4:30 for men in 2022). Key constraints include:
- Maximum of 7 jump elements (of which at most 3 may be combinations or sequences).
- Maximum of 3 spins (one must be a combination spin, one a flying or flying-entry spin).
- One step sequence and one choreographic sequence.
- Each type of triple or quadruple jump may be performed a maximum of twice, and at least one instance must be in a combination or sequence.
- Elements in the second half of the program receive a 10% base value bonus, rewarding difficult elements executed under fatigue.
5.3 Jump Elements
Six types of jumps are recognized, listed here in order of ascending base value (difficulty):
- Toe Loop (T): Toe-assisted jump taking off from the back outside edge of the landing foot.
- Salchow (S): Edge jump taking off from the back inside edge.
- Loop (Lo): Edge jump taking off from the back outside edge (same as landing edge).
- Flip (F): Toe-assisted jump taking off from the back inside edge.
- Lutz (Lz): Toe-assisted jump taking off from the back outside edge on a counter-rotational entry (long backward glide on the outside edge). Distinguished from the Flip by the takeoff edge.
- Axel (A): The only jump with a forward takeoff (front outside edge), requiring an extra half-revolution. A triple Axel is 3.5 revolutions; a quadruple Axel is 4.5 revolutions.
Jumps may be performed as singles (1 revolution), doubles (2), triples (3), or quadruples (4). Quadruple jumps are now standard in senior men's competition, with the quad Lutz, quad Flip, and quad Axel among the most difficult elements attempted.
5.4 Spins
Three basic spin positions exist, with variations:
- Upright spin: Skater spins in an upright position. Variations include the scratch spin, layback spin (arched back), and Biellmann spin (free leg pulled overhead).
- Sit spin: Skating leg bent to at least a 90-degree angle. Variations include the cannonball, broken leg, and pancake positions.
- Camel spin: Free leg extended backward at or above hip level. Variations include the donut spin and flying camel.
- Combination spin: Must include at least two basic positions with no more than one change of foot.
Spins are assigned levels (Base through Level 4) based on features such as difficult variations, change of edge, number of revolutions in a difficult position, and change of foot.
5.5 Step and Choreographic Sequences
A step sequence must utilize the full ice surface and incorporate a variety of turns (threes, brackets, rockers, counters, twizzles, loops) and steps on both feet with deep edges. Step sequences are assigned levels (Base through Level 4) based on complexity, variety, and body movement.
A choreographic sequence consists of any skating movements (spirals, spread eagles, Ina Bauers, hydroblading, etc.) and is evaluated only by GOE, receiving a fixed base value.
5.6 Pairs-Specific Elements
- Throw jumps: The man assists the woman into a jump. All six jump types can be throw jumps (throw triple Axel, throw quad Salchow, etc.).
- Side-by-side jumps: Both partners perform the same jump simultaneously.
- Pair spins: Both partners spin together, with one partner rotating around the other.
- Death spiral: The man pivots on one foot while the woman spirals around him on a deep edge with her back arched near the ice. Four types: forward inside, forward outside, backward inside, backward outside.
- Lifts: Classified into Groups 1 through 5 based on the man's hand/arm position and the woman's position. Group 5 lifts (one-hand overhead) are the most difficult. Maximum of 3 lifts in the Free Skating.
- Twist lifts: The man throws the woman into the air with rotation; she completes revolutions and is caught before landing.
5.7 Ice Dance-Specific Rules
The Rhythm Dance (duration 2 minutes 50 seconds) requires a prescribed rhythm or theme that changes each season (e.g., waltz, blues, Latin). It includes a required pattern dance sequence, a set of sequential or synchronized twizzles, and a step sequence.
The Free Dance (4 minutes) is a free composition emphasizing musicality and expression. Required elements include lifts (up to 3, with specific duration and type restrictions), twizzle sequences, step sequences, and choreographic elements. No jumps beyond single Axels are permitted in ice dance. No throw jumps, no overhead lifts; lift duration is limited to 6 seconds.
5.8 Warm-Up and Starting Order
Competitors skate in groups of 6 (or fewer in the final group). Each group receives a 6-minute warm-up on the competition ice immediately before skating. Starting order for the Short Program/Rhythm Dance is determined by random draw. For the Free Skating/Free Dance, competitors skate in reverse order of standing from the short segment, with the leader skating last in the final group.
Section 6: Scoring
6.1 ISU Judging System (IJS) Overview
The ISU Judging System (IJS), officially adopted for the 2004–2005 season, replaced the controversial 6.0 system following the judging scandal at the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics. The IJS provides granular, element-by-element scoring rather than a single holistic mark. The total score for each segment is:
Total Segment Score (TSS) = Technical Element Score (TES) + Program Component Score (PCS) − Deductions
6.2 Technical Element Score (TES)
Each element performed receives a score calculated as:
Element Score = Base Value + GOE adjustment
- Base Value (BV): A fixed point value assigned to each element based on its type and difficulty (e.g., triple Axel BV = 8.00, quad toe loop BV = 9.50, quad Lutz BV = 11.50). These values are published in the ISU Scale of Values.
- Grade of Execution (GOE): Each judge assigns a GOE from -5 to +5 based on the quality of execution. The GOE integer is then converted to a point value using a percentage of the base value (approximately ±10% per GOE step). The trimmed mean of the judges' GOE values is applied.
- Second-half bonus: Jump elements performed in the second half of the program receive a 10% bonus on their base value.
6.3 Under-Rotation and Edge Calls
The Technical Panel assesses jump rotation and takeoff edges using video review:
- Under-rotation (< symbol): Missing between one-quarter and one-half revolution. The jump receives approximately 75% of its base value.
- Downgrade (<< symbol): Missing more than one-half revolution. The jump is downgraded to the next lower rotation (e.g., a downgraded triple becomes a double for scoring purposes).
- Edge call (e): Incorrect takeoff edge on a Flip or Lutz (e.g., taking off on an outside edge for a Flip, which should use an inside edge). Results in a mandatory GOE reduction.
- Unclear edge (!): The takeoff edge is uncertain but not clearly wrong. Carries a lesser GOE penalty than a full edge call.
6.4 Program Component Score (PCS)
Five program components are evaluated, each scored on a scale of 0.25 to 10.00 in increments of 0.25:
- Skating Skills: Quality of edge control, flow, speed, glide, and multi-directional skating. Mastery of one-foot skating and effortless power generation.
- Transitions: Variety and difficulty of movements and transitions linking technical elements. Use of intricate footwork, movements, and body transitions between elements.
- Performance: Physical, emotional, and intellectual involvement. Connection between partners (pairs/dance). Projection and carriage throughout the program.
- Composition: Purposeful arrangement of movements and elements. Use of space, pattern, ice coverage, and musical phrasing. Originality of concept.
- Interpretation of the Music: Expression of the music's character, rhythm, and nuance through movement. Timing and finesse reflecting musical accents and structure.
Each component score uses a trimmed mean (highest and lowest discarded, remaining seven averaged). The raw component scores are then multiplied by a factor specific to the discipline and segment (e.g., factor of 1.0 for men's Short Program components, 2.0 for Free Skating). The factored component scores are summed to produce the total PCS.
6.5 Total Competition Score
The total competition score is the sum of both segment scores: Short Program TSS + Free Skating TSS (or Rhythm Dance TSS + Free Dance TSS for ice dance). The competitor with the highest combined total wins. In case of a tie, the skater with the higher Free Skating/Free Dance score is ranked higher.
Section 7: Violations & Penalties
7.1 Falls
A fall is defined as a loss of control resulting in the skater's body touching the ice with any part other than the blades. Each fall incurs a -1.0 deduction from the total segment score (singles, pairs, and ice dance). Additionally, a fall on an element triggers a mandatory negative GOE on that element (minimum -3 to -4 on the GOE scale). In pairs and ice dance, a fall by one partner counts as one fall; a simultaneous fall by both partners counts as one fall.
7.2 Time Violations
- If a program exceeds or falls short of the prescribed time by more than 10 seconds, a -1.0 deduction is applied for every 5 seconds in excess or deficit.
- The Referee stops the program if the skater exceeds the time limit by more than 30 seconds.
7.3 Illegal and Invalid Elements
- Illegal elements: Somersault-type jumps (backflips/frontflips), lying on the ice for an extended period, and lifts where the man's hands are higher than his head in ice dance are all illegal. An illegal element receives zero value and a -2.0 deduction.
- Extra elements: Elements exceeding the prescribed maximum (e.g., an 8th jump element in free skating) receive no value.
- Repeated elements: A jump type performed more than the allowed number of times receives no value on the additional attempt.
7.4 Costume and Music Violations
- Costume violation: Use of props, accessories, or costumes violating ISU Rule 501 results in a -1.0 deduction.
- Music violation: Inappropriate musical content or failure to comply with music regulations is penalized at the Referee's discretion, typically -1.0 deduction.
- Interruption: If a skater stops during a program due to equipment failure, they may be permitted to restart after a brief delay, but a -5.0 deduction is applied for an interruption lasting more than 3 minutes. Only one interruption per program is allowed.
7.5 Late Start and Withdrawal
- A skater who fails to appear on the ice within 1 minute of being called receives a warning. Failure to appear within 5 minutes results in withdrawal from the segment.
- A skater who withdraws from the Short Program/Rhythm Dance cannot compete in the Free Skating/Free Dance of that event.
Section 8: Safety Considerations
8.1 Warm-Up Safety
During the 6-minute warm-up, an Ice Marshal monitors the session to prevent collisions and dangerous behavior. Skaters must exercise spatial awareness, particularly when practicing jumps. The skater preparing for a jump has the right of way. Coaches are not permitted on the ice during warm-up. If a collision occurs, the Referee may extend the warm-up period.
8.2 Ice Maintenance
The ice surface is resurfaced with a Zamboni between warm-up groups (typically every 6–8 skaters) and between segments of competition. Loose debris, flowers, or thrown objects must be cleared by ice attendants before the next competitor takes the ice. The ISU prohibits throwing objects onto the ice until the skater has completed their program and scores have been announced.
8.3 Medical Support
- A qualified medical team must be present on-site at all ISU competitions, with access to the ice within 2 minutes.
- An ambulance must be stationed at the venue for ISU Championships and Olympic events.
- If a skater is injured during a program, the Referee may stop the program. The skater has 3 minutes to resume. If unable to continue, the skater receives a score for elements completed up to the interruption.
- Concussion protocols follow ISU medical guidelines; a skater showing signs of concussion must be evaluated before being permitted to continue.
8.4 Pairs and Ice Dance Safety
- In pairs, lift height is unrestricted (overhead lifts are permitted), but the man must demonstrate safe catching technique. The lifted partner must not be thrown more than once per lift. Falls from lifts carry additional safety review.
- In ice dance, overhead lifts are prohibited. The lifted partner's body must not rise above the man's shoulder line. Lift duration is limited to 6 seconds.
- Blade guards must be worn when walking off-ice to protect blades and prevent injury to others.
8.5 Equipment Safety
- Skaters are responsible for ensuring their equipment is in safe working condition. Loose blades, broken boot supports, or damaged costumes that create a safety hazard require immediate repair.
- If a blade becomes detached during competition, the program is immediately stopped and the skater may be permitted to resume after repair, subject to a deduction for interruption.